Monophysitism (
/məˈnɒfɨsaɪtɨzəm/ or
/məˈnɒfɨsɪtɨzəm/;
Greek:
monos meaning "only, single" and
physis meaning "nature"), is the
Christologicalposition that, after the union of the divine and the human in the historical Incarnation,
Jesus Christ, as the incarnation of the eternal Son or Word (
Logos) of God, had only a single "nature" which was either divine or a synthesis of divine and human. Monophysitism is contrasted to
dyophysitism(or dia-, dio-, or duophysitism) which maintains that Christ maintained two natures, one divine and one human, after the Incarnation.
Historically, Monophysitism (usually capitalized in this sense) refers primarily to the position of those (especially in Egypt and to a lesser extent Syria) who rejected the
Council of Chalcedon in 451 (the Fourth Ecumenical Council). The moderate members of this group, however, maintained a "
Miaphysite" theology that became that of the
Oriental Orthodox churches. Many Oriental Orthodox reject the label "Monophysite" even as a generic term, but it is extensively used in the historical literature.
After the Council of Chalcedon, the Monophysite controversy (together with institutional, political, and growing nationalistic factors) led to a lasting schism between the Oriental Orthodox churches, on the one hand, and the Western and the Eastern Orthodox churches on the other. The Christological conflict among monophysitism, duophysitism, and their subtle combinations and derivatives lasted from the third through the eighth centuries and left its mark on all but the first two Ecumenical Councils. The vast majority of Christians nowadays belong to the so-called "Chalcedonian" churches. i.e. the
Roman Catholic,
Eastern Orthodox, and traditional
Protestant churches (those that accept at least the first four
Ecumenical Councils); these churches have always considered monophysitism to be
heretical.
In the light of modern historical research and ecumenical discussions, the miaphysite and Chalcedonian positions appear to differ mainly in their usage of the key term "nature" (
Greek: φύσις,
phýsis, as used in the original texts of the relevant Ecumenical Councils) rather than in the underlying Christology, but other smaller differences of interpretation or emphasis may also exist. Intercommunion between the Oriental Orthodox and various Chalcedonian churches has not yet been reestablished.
Monophysitism is occasionally referred to as "monophysiticism."
Introduction[edit]
A brief definition of Monophysitism can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one
hypostasis in one nature: divine."
[1]
Monophysitism was born in the theological "
School of Alexandria", which began its Christological analysis with the (divine) eternal Son or Word of God and sought to explain how this eternal Word had become incarnate as a man—in contrast to the "
School of Antioch" (birthplace of
Nestorianism, the antithesis of Monophysitism), which instead began with the (human) Jesus of the Gospels and sought to explain how this man had become united with the eternal Word in the Incarnation. Both sides agreed, of course, that Christ was both human and divine, but the Alexandrians emphasized divinity (including the fact that the divine nature was itself "impassible" or immune to suffering) while the Antiochines emphasized humanity (including the limited knowledge and "growth in wisdom" of the Christ of the Gospels). Individual Monophysite and Nestorian theologians in fact rarely believed the extreme views that their respective opponents attributed to them (although some of their followers may have). Ultimately, however, the dialectic between the schools of Alexandria and Antioch produced Christologies that on all sides (notwithstanding ongoing differences between the Oriental Orthodox and Chalcedonian churches) avoided the extremes and reflect both points of view.
Monophysitism was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which among other things adopted the Definition of Chalcedon (often known as the "
Chalcedonian Creed") stating that Christ is the eternal Son of God "made known in two natures without confusion [i.e. mixture], without change, without division, without separation, the difference of the natures being by no means removed because of the union, but the property of each nature being preserved and coalescing in one
prosopon [person] and one
hupostasis [subsistence]--
not parted or divided into two
prosopa[persons], but one and the same Son, only-begotten, divine Word, the Lord Jesus Christ."
[2]
Accepted by the sees of Rome, Constantinople, and Antioch, the Chalcedonian settlement encountered strong resistance in Alexandria (and in Egypt generally), leading ultimately to the schism between the Oriental Orthodox churches (which reject Chalcedon), on the one hand, and the so-called
Chalcedonian churches on the other. The Chalcedonian churches have always considered monophysitism to be
heretical and have generally viewed it as the (explicit or implicit) position of the
Oriental Orthodox churches. The
Oriental Orthodox churches, on the other hand, consider their own
Christology, known as
Miaphysitism and based heavily on the writings of Cyril of Alexandria (whom all sides accept as orthodox), to be distinct from monophysitism, and often object to being labelled monophysites.
[3][4]
Historical Development[edit]
Monophysitism and its antithesis,
Nestorianism, were both hotly disputed and divisive competing tenets in the maturing Christian traditions during the first half of the 5th century, during the tumultuous last decades of the
Western Empire. It was marked by the political shift in all things to a center of gravity then located in the
Eastern Roman Empire, and particularly in
Syria, the
Levant, and
Anatolia, where monophysitism was popular among the people.
There are two major doctrines that can indisputably be called "monophysite":
- Eutychianism holds that the human and divine natures of Christ were fused into one new single (mono) nature: His human nature was "dissolved like a drop of honey in the sea".
- Apollinarism or Apollinarianism holds that Christ had a human body and human "living principle" but that the Divine Logos had taken the place of the nous, or "thinking principle", analogous but not identical to what might be called a mind in the present day.
After Nestorianism, taught by
Nestorius,
Archbishop of Constantinople, was rejected at the
First Council of Ephesus,
Eutyches, an
archimandrite at
Constantinople, emerged with diametrically opposite views. Eutyches' energy and the imprudence with which he asserted his opinions brought him the accusation of
heresy in 448, leading to his excommunication. In 449, at the controversial
Second Council of Ephesus Eutyches was reinstated and his chief opponents
Eusebius,
Domnus and
Flavian, deposed. Monophysitism and Eutyches were again rejected at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Later,
monothelitism – the belief that Christ was two natures in one person
except that he only had a divine will and no human will – was developed as an attempt to bridge the gap between the monophysite and the Chalcedonian position, but it too was rejected by the members of the Chalcedonian synod, despite at times having the support of the
Byzantine emperors and once escaping the condemnation of a
Pope of Rome,
Honorius I. Some are of the opinion that
monothelitism was at one time held by the
Maronites, but the Maronite community, for the most part, dispute this, stating that they have never been out of communion with the
Catholic Church.
